Edaravone dexborneol protects against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion-induced blood-brain barrier damage by inhibiting ferroptosis via activation of nrf-2/HO-1/GPX4 signaling.

PURPOSE: Ferroptosis has recently been recognized as a mechanism of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, attributed to blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Edaravone dexboneol (Eda.B) is a novel neuroprotective agent widely employed in ischemic stroke, which is composed of edaravone (Eda) and dexborneol. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of Eda.B on the BBB in cerebral I/R and explore its potential mechanisms. METHODS: Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) Sprague-Dawley-rats model was used. Rats were randomly assigned to sham-operated group (sham, n = 20), model group (tMCAO, n = 20), Eda.B group (Eda.B, n = 20), Eda group (Eda, n = 20) and dexborneol group (dexborneol, n = 20), and Eda.B + Zinc protoporphyria group (Eda.B + ZnPP, n = 5). Infarct area, cellular apoptosis and neurofunctional recovery were accessed through TTC staining, TUNEL staining, and modified Garcia scoring system, respectively. BBB integrity was evaluated via Evans blue staining. Nuclear factor E2 related factor 2 (Nrf-2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1)/glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) signaling were qualified by Western blot. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed alterations in ipsilateral brain tissue among groups. Glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and Fe2+ tissue content determination were detected. RESULTS: Eda.B effectively improved neurological deficits, diminished infarct area and cellular apoptosis, as well as ameliorated BBB integrity in tMCAO rats. Further, Eda.B significantly inhibited ferroptosis, as evidenced by ameliorated pathological features of mitochondria, down-regulated of MDA and Fe2+ levels and up-regulated GSH content. Mechanistically, Eda.B attenuated BBB disruption via Nrf-2-mediated ferroptosis, promoting nuclear translocation of Nrf-2, increasing HO-1, GPX4 expression, alleviating the loss of zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1) and occludin as well as decreasing 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) level. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed for the first time that Eda.B safeguarded the BBB from cerebral I/R injury by inhibiting ferroptosis through the activation of the Nrf-2/HO-1/GPX4 axis, providing a novel insight into the neuroprotective effect of Eda.B in cerebral I/R.

Dysregulation of Ion Channels and Transporters and Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a critical role in maintaining ion and fluid homeostasis, essential for brain metabolism and neuronal function. Regulation of nutrient, water, and ion transport across the BBB is tightly controlled by specialized ion transporters and channels located within its unique cellular components. These dynamic transport processes not only influence the BBB's structure but also impact vital signaling mechanisms, essential for its optimal function. Disruption in ion, pH, and fluid balance at the BBB is associated with brain pathology and has been implicated in various neurological conditions, including stroke, epilepsy, trauma, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, knowledge gaps exist regarding the impact of ion transport dysregulation on BBB function in neurodegenerative dementias. Several factors contribute to this gap: the complex nature of these conditions, historical research focus on neuronal mechanisms and technical challenges in studying the ion transport mechanisms in in vivo models and the lack of efficient in vitro BBB dementia models. This review provides an overview of current research on the roles of ion transporters and channels at the BBB and poses specific research questions: 1) How are the expression and activity of key ion transporters altered in AD and vascular dementia (VaD); 2) Do these changes contribute to BBB dysfunction and disease progression; and 3) Can restoring ion transport function mitigate BBB dysfunction and improve clinical outcomes. Addressing these gaps will provide a greater insight into the vascular pathology of neurodegenerative disorders.

PHLDA1 knockdown alleviates mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced neuronal apoptosis via activating PPARγ in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress occur in ischemic stroke. The disruption of these two organelles can directly lead to cell death through various signaling pathways. Thus, investigation of the associated molecular mechanisms in cerebral ischemia is a prerequisite for stroke treatment. Pleckstrin homology-like domain family A member 1 (PHLDA1) is a multifunctional protein that can modulate mitochondrial function and ER stress in cardiomyocyte and cancer cells. This work studied the role of PHLDA1 in cerebral ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) injury and explored the underlying mechanisms associated with mitochondrial functions and ER stress. Middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R)-treated mice and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-stimulated neurons were used as I/R models in vivo and in vitro, respectively. PHLDA1 was upregulated in ischemic penumbra of MCAO/R-induced mice and OGD/R-exposed neurons. In vitro, PHLDA1 knockdown protected neurons from OGD/R-induced apoptosis. In vivo, PHLDA1 silencing facilitated functional recovery and reduced cerebral infarct volume. Mechanistically, PHLDA1 knockdown promoted PPARγ nuclear translocation, which may mediate the effects on reversion of mitochondrial functions and alleviation of ER stress. In summary, PHLDA1 knockdown alleviates neuronal ischemic injuries in mice. PPARγ activation and mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress attenuation are involved in the underlying mechanisms.

The Role of Cullin 3 in Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

Cullin 3 (CUL3), a member of Cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase family, regulates multiple intracellular pathways. CUL3 expression in peripheral immune cells is highly associated with the development of stroke, while little is known about the mechanism of how CUL3 participates in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. In this study, we showed that CUL3 was obviously upregulated in brain tissues of male rats received middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced neurons. We firstly confirmed that CUL3 interacted with WNK3, a protein that has been proved to be associated with brain damage after ischemic stroke. CUL3 knockdown inhibited the ubiquitination of WNK3 and accelerated the phosphorylation of OSR1 in OGD/R-stimulated neurons. CUL3 silencing did not further aggravate cerebral I/R injury and played a neuroprotective role in vitro and in vivo. CUL3 knockdown attenuated the impairment of cell viability caused by OGD/R. CUL3 silencing reduced TUNEL-positive cells, down-regulated pro-apoptotic factor (Bax and Cleaved caspase 3) levels and increased the anti-apoptotic factor (Bcl-2) level in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that CUL3 repression alleviated neuronal apoptosis. Interestingly, rescue experiments revealed that WNK3 downregulation did not block the neuroprotection of CUL3 inhibition. These findings suggested that CUL3-mediated cerebral I/R injury might be not achieved through WNK3 signaling but other pathways. Furthermore, CUL3 inhibition suppressed ubiquitin-mediated degradation of Nrf2 and activated Nrf2 signaling by increasing the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and expression levels of HO-1 and NQO-1. Taken together, CUL3 exacerbates cerebral I/R injury potentially due to its negative regulation of Nrf2 activation.

PHLDA1 Blockade Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury by Affecting Microglial M1/M2 Polarization and NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation.

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury is the main cause of neurological deficit following stroke. Pleckstrin homology-like domain, family A, member 1 (PHLDA1) is increasingly recognized as a critical determinant in immunological regulation and cell apoptosis, but its role in neuroinflammation during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury remains to be elucidated. In this study, middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) in C57BL/6 mice and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) in BV-2 cells were used as models in vivo and in vitro, respectively. MACO/R mice and OGD/R cells were treated with scramble or PHLDA1 small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to achieve the goal of PHLDA1 knockdown. The results showed that the expression of PHLDA1 was significantly increased in MCAO/R mice and OGD/R cells compared to their normal controls, respectively. Mice treated with PHLDA1 siRNA exhibited a lower degree of infarct volume and brain water content compared to the NC siRNA-treated mice. Notably, PHLDA1 knockdown switched the M1 pro-inflammatory phenotype to the M2 anti-inflammatory phenotype by decreasing the expression of M1 markers (i.e., CD16, TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ, and iNOS) and elevating the expression of M2 markers (i.e., CD206, IL-4, IL-10, and Arg-1). Moreover, PHLDA1 knockdown suppressed the NLRP3 inflammasome activation by reducing NLRP3, ASC, cleaved caspase 1 and cleaved IL-1ß expression. In summary, these results suggest that PHLDA1 blockade effectively alleviates the ischemia/reperfusion-induced cerebral injury by switching microglial M1/M2 polarization and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Targeting PHLDA1 could be considered as a novel strategy in the treatment against post-ischemic brain injury.

GABAB1e promotes the malignancy of human cancer cells by targeting the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN12.

Neurotransmitter receptors are involved in cancer progression. Among them, the heterodimeric GABAB receptor, activated by the main inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, is composed of the transmembrane GABAB1 and GABAB2 subunits. The oncogenic role of the isoform GABAB1e (GB1e) containing only the extracellular domain of GABAB1 remains unclear. We revealed that GB1e is largely expressed in human breast cancer (BrCa) cell lines as well as in BrCa tissues where it is upregulated. Moreover, GB1e promoted the malignancy of BrCa cells both in vitro and in vivo. We propose that GB1e favors EGFR signaling by interacting with PTPN12 to disrupt the interaction between EGFR and PTPN12, and phosphorylation of Y230 and Y404 on GB1e is required in this process. Our data highlight that the GABBR1 gene through the expression of the GB1e isoform might play an important oncogenic role in BrCa and that GB1e is of interest for the treatment of some cancers.

Associations between Certain Polymorphisms in Proinflammatory Cytokines and Predisposition of Alzheimer's Disease: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Functional gene polymorphisms of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and interleukin-18 (IL-18) may contribute to the onset and development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the relationships between these polymorphisms and predisposition of AD remain controversial. OBJECTIVES: This meta-analysis was conducted to more robustly assess relationships between TNF-α/IL-6/IL-8/IL-18 polymorphisms and predisposition of AD by pooling the findings of relevant studies. METHODS: A comprehensive literature searching was performed in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Wanfang, and CNKI databases, and 63 studies were found to be eligible for quantitative analyses. RESULTS: The pooled meta-analysis results showed that genotypic frequencies of TNF-α rs1800629, IL-6 rs1800795, IL-8 rs4073, and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms among AD cases and controls of Asian ethnicity differed significantly. But, we did not observe such genotypic frequencies differences in Caucasians. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis suggests that TNF-α rs1800629, IL-6 rs1800795, IL-8 rs4073, and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms may affect predisposition of AD in Asians, but not in Caucasians.

Blocking NHE1 stimulates glioma tumor immunity by restoring OXPHOS function of myeloid cells.

Background: Immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) in glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the contributing factors for failed immunotherapies. Therefore, there is an urgent need to better understand TME and to identify novel modulators of TME for more effective GBM therapies. We hypothesized that H+ extrusion protein Na/H exchanger 1 (NHE1) plays a role in dysregulation of glucose metabolism and immunosuppression of GBM. We investigated the efficacy of blockade of NHE1 activity in combination with temozolomide (TMZ) therapy in increasing anti-tumor immunity. Methods: Mouse syngeneic intracranial glioma model was used to test four treatment regimens: DMSO (Vehicle-control), TMZ, NHE1 specific inhibitor HOE642, or TMZ+HOE642 (T+H) combination. Ex vivo1H/19Fluorine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with cell tracking agent Vsense was performed to monitor the infiltration of glioma-associated microglia/myeloid cells (GAMs). Glucose metabolism and transcriptome profiles were analyzed by Seahorse analyzer and bulk RNA-sequencing. The impact of selective Nhe1 deletion in GAMs on sensitivity to anti-PD-1 therapy was evaluated in transgenic NHE1 knockout (KO) mice. Results: Among the tested treatment regimens, the T+H combination therapy significantly stimulated the infiltration of GAMs and T-cells; up-regulated Th1 activation, and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway genes, increased glucose uptake and mitochondrial mass, and decreased aerobic glycolysis in GAMs. Selective deletion of Nhe1 in Cx3cr1+Nhe1 KO mice increased anti-tumor immunity and sensitivity to TMZ plus anti-PD-1 combinatorial therapy. Conclusions: NHE1 plays a role in developing glioma immunosuppressive TME in part by dysregulating glucose metabolism of GAMs and emerges as a therapeutic target for improving glioma immunity.

Upregulation of miR-34a by Inhibition of IRE1α Has Protective Effect against Aß-Induced Injury in SH-SY5Y Cells by Targeting Caspase-2.

BACKGROUND: Neurotoxicity induced by the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide is one of the most important pathological mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Based on accumulating evidence in AD research, both endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) and alterations in the microRNA (miRNA) network contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease, making them potential therapeutic targets for AD. The present study was performed to investigate whether miR-34a and the inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) are involved in the regulation of Aß-induced cytotoxicity. METHODS: Human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were treated with Aß1-40. Cell viability was assessed by the MTT assay. The integrity of the plasma membrane was assessed by LDH release. The expression levels of XBP1s, IRE1α, p-IRE1α, and Caspase-2 were detected by Western blot analysis. Spliced-XBP1 mRNA and miR-34a were detected by reverse transcription- (RT-) PCR and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. Caspase-2 activity was measured using the Caspase-2 cellular activity assay kit. The IRE1 inhibitor (STF-083010) was used to determine the role of IRE1α on miR-34a expression. SH-SY5Y cells were transfected with miR-34a mimics to assess the role of miR-34a on the activation of Caspase-2 and the viability of Aß-exposed SH-SY5Y cells. RESULTS: We showed that Aß caused concentration- and duration-dependent death of SH-SY5Y cells. The expression levels of XBP1s, p-IRE1α, and Caspase-2 were increased, along with a corresponding decrease in the miR-34a levels in Aß-exposed SH-SY5Y cells. The IRE1 inhibitor (STF-083010) upregulated the expression of miR-34a and suppressed the activation of Caspase-2, effectively alleviating the Aß-induced death of SH-SY5Y cells. Transfection studies show that miR-34a mimics inhibit the expression of Caspase-2 and restore the viability of Aß-exposed SH-SY5Y cells. CONCLUSION: Aß peptide induced downregulation of miR-34a through the activation of IRE1α, which may induce cytotoxicity by targeting Caspase-2. Upregulation of miR-34a by inhibition of IRE1α has protective effects against Aß-induced injury in SH-SY5Y cells.

The WNK-SPAK/OSR1 Kinases and the Cation-Chloride Cotransporters as Therapeutic Targets for Neurological Diseases.

In recent years, cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs) have drawn attention in the medical neuroscience research. CCCs include the family of Na+-coupled Cl- importers (NCC, NKCC1, and NKCC2), K+-coupled Cl- exporters (KCCs), and possibly polyamine transporters (CCC9) and CCC interacting protein (CIP1). For decades, CCCs have been the targets of several commonly used diuretic drugs, including hydrochlorothiazide, furosemide, and bumetanide. Genetic mutations of NCC and NKCC2 cause congenital renal tubular disorders and lead to renal salt-losing hypotension, secondary hyperreninemia, and hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. New studies reveal that CCCs along with their regulatory WNK (Kinase with no lysine (K)), and SPAK (Ste20-related proline-alanine-rich kinase)/OSR1(oxidative stress-responsive kinase-1) are essential for regulating cell volume and maintaining ionic homeostasis in the nervous system, especially roles of the WNK-SPAK-NKCC1 signaling pathway in ischemic brain injury and hypersecretion of cerebrospinal fluid in post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus. In addition, disruption of Cl- exporter KCC2 has an effect on synaptic inhibition, which may be involved in developing pain, epilepsy, and possibly some neuropsychiatric disorders. Interference with KCC3 leads to peripheral nervous system neuropathy as well as axon and nerve fiber swelling and psychosis. The WNK-SPAK/OSR1-CCCs complex emerges as therapeutic targets for multiple neurological diseases. This review will highlight these new findings.

A Novel Na+-K+-Cl- Cotransporter 1 Inhibitor STS66* Reduces Brain Damage in Mice After Ischemic Stroke.

Background and Purpose- Inhibition of brain NKCC1 (Na+-K+-Cl- cotransporter 1) with bumetanide (BMT) is of interest in ischemic stroke therapy. However, its poor brain penetration limits the application. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of 2 novel NKCC1 inhibitors, a lipophilic BMT prodrug STS5 (2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl 3-(butylamino)-4-phenoxy-5-sulfamoyl-benzoate;hydrochloride) and a novel NKCC1 inhibitor STS66 (3-(Butylamino)-2-phenoxy-5-[(2,2,2-trifluoroethylamino)methyl]benzenesulfonamide), on reducing ischemic brain injury. Methods- Large-vessel transient ischemic stroke in normotensive C57BL/6J mice was induced with 50-min occlusion of the middle cerebral artery and reperfusion. Focal, permanent ischemic stroke in angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced hypertensive C57BL/6J mice was induced by permanent occlusion of distal branches of middle cerebral artery. A total of 206 mice were randomly assigned to receive vehicle DMSO, BMT, STS5, or STS66. Results- Poststroke BMT, STS5, or STS66 treatment significantly decreased infarct volume and cerebral swelling by ≈40% to 50% in normotensive mice after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion, but STS66-treated mice displayed better survival and sensorimotor functional recovery. STS5 treatment increased the mortality. Ang II-induced hypertensive mice exhibited increased phosphorylatory activation of SPAK (Ste20-related proline alanine-rich kinase) and NKCC1, as well as worsened infarct and neurological deficit after permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion. Conclusions- The novel NKCC1 inhibitor STS66 is superior to BMT and STS5 in reducing ischemic infarction, swelling, and neurological deficits in large-vessel transient ischemic stroke, as well as in permanent focal ischemic stroke with hypertension comorbidity.

Valproate Plays a Protective Role against Migraine by Inhibiting Protein Kinase C Signalling in Nitroglycerin-treated Mice.

Migraine is a common disease with a high morbidity. Valproate (VP) is used as an anti-epilepsy drug in clinic. This study aimed to investigate the role of VP in nitroglycerin (NTG)-induced migraine using a mouse model. NTG was employed by intraperitoneal injection to induce a migraine model in mice. The NTG administration caused mouse head discomforts, decreased tolerance to cold or hot stimulation and increased content of nitric oxide, calcitonin gene-related peptide and neuropeptide Y in serum, which were ameliorated by intraperitoneal injection of VP. The levels of two inflammatory factors, interleukin (IL)-1ß and inducible nitric oxide synthase, in dura mater were increased by NTG treatment, while the increase was attenuated by application of VP. In addition, the phosphorylation levels of protein kinase C (PKC) α, γ, δ and ε were increased by NTG and decreased by VP. However, their total expression at the transcriptional and translational levels did not change significantly. Two substrates of PKC, cAMP-response element binding protein 1 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 were also phosphorylated by NTG application, and the phosphorylation level was attenuated by VP, consistent with the change of PKC informs. Together, we demonstrated that VP prevented damage due to migraine by inhibiting PKC signalling in NTG-injected mice, which may provide a basis for investigating the clinical treatment of migraine.

GABABR-Induced EGFR Transactivation Promotes Migration of Human Prostate Cancer Cells.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) act in concert to regulate cell growth, proliferation, survival, and migration. Metabotropic GABAB receptor (GABABR) is the GPCR for the main inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the central nervous system. Increased expression of GABABR has been detected in human cancer tissues and cancer cell lines, but the role of GABABR in these cells is controversial and the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated whether GABABR hijacks RTK signaling to modulate the fates of human prostate cancer cells. RTK array analysis revealed that the GABABR-specific agonist baclofen selectively induced the transactivation of EGFR in PC-3 cells. EGFR transactivation resulted in the activation of ERK1/2 by a mechanism that is dependent on Gi/o protein and that requires matrix metalloproteinase-mediated proligand shedding. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of GABABR, such as CGP7930, rac-BHFF, and GS39783, can function as PAM agonists to induce EGFR transactivation and subsequent ERK1/2 activation. Moreover, both baclofen and CGP7930 promoted cell migration and invasion through EGFR signaling. In summary, our observations demonstrated that GABABR transactivated EGFR in a ligand-dependent mechanism to promote prostate cancer cell migration and invasion, thus providing new insights into developing a novel strategy for prostate cancer treatment by targeting neurotransmitter signaling.

Deletion of the WNK3-SPAK kinase complex in mice improves radiographic and clinical outcomes in malignant cerebral edema after ischemic stroke.

The WNK-SPAK kinase signaling pathway controls renal NaCl reabsorption and systemic blood pressure by regulating ion transporters and channels. A WNK3-SPAK complex is highly expressed in brain, but its function in this organ remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of this kinase complex in brain edema and white matter injury after ischemic stroke. Wild-type, WNK3 knockout, and SPAK heterozygous or knockout mice underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. One cohort of mice underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Ex-vivo brains three days post-ischemia were imaged by slice-selective spin-echo diffusion tensor imaging magnetic resonance imaging, after which the same brain tissues were subjected to immunofluorescence staining. A second cohort of mice underwent neurological deficit analysis up to 14 days post-transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Relative to wild-type mice, WNK3 knockout, SPAK heterozygous, and SPAK knockout mice each exhibited a >50% reduction in infarct size and associated cerebral edema, significantly less demyelination, and improved neurological outcomes. We conclude that WNK3-SPAK signaling regulates brain swelling, gray matter injury, and demyelination after ischemic stroke, and that WNK3-SPAK inhibition has therapeutic potential for treating malignant cerebral edema in the setting of middle cerebral artery stroke.

Valproate Attenuates Nitroglycerin-Induced Trigeminovascular Activation by Preserving Mitochondrial Function in a Rat Model of Migraine.

BACKGROUND Migraine is a chronic disease that interferes with life quality and work productivity. Valproate shows protective effects against migraine, yet the underlying mechanisms are unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the potential effect of valproate on migraine using a rat model of nitroglycerin-induced trigeminovascular activation, as well as to explore the underlying mechanism. MATERIAL AND METHODS Intraperitoneal injection of nitroglycerin was conducted to induce trigeminovascular activation in rats. To explore the protective effect of valproate, a low dose (100 mg/kg) or a high dose (200 mg/kg) of valproate was intraperitoneally injected into rats, and then the levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine and nitric oxide in the peripheral blood were examined. The mtDNA copy number and the protein levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1α, mitochondrial transcription factor A, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in the spinal trigeminal nucleus were detected to evaluate the biogenesis of mitochondria. The mitochondrial energy metabolism was determined by the mitochondrial membrane potential and the levels of adenosine triphosphate, cytochrome C oxidase, and reactive oxygen species. RESULTS Valproate attenuated nitroglycerin-induced trigeminovascular activation in rats, with reduced scratching behavior and restored 5-hydroxytryptamine and nitric oxide levels. Moreover, the mitochondrial energy metabolism and the biogenesis of mitochondria were preserved by valproate in nitroglycerin-treated rats. CONCLUSIONS The protective effect of valproate against migraine may be achieved through the modulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Our study provides evidence for the potential use of valproate in the treatment of migraine.

Valproate ameliorates nitroglycerin-induced migraine in trigeminal nucleus caudalis in rats through inhibition of NF-кB.

BACKGROUND: As a complex nervous system disease, migraine causes severe healthy and social issues worldwide. Valproate (VPA) is a widely used treatment agent against seizures and bipolar disorder, and its function to alleviate damage due to migraine has also been verified in clinical investigations. However, the mechanism underlying the protective effect of VPA against migraine remains poorly revealed. In the current study, the major purpose was to uncover the mechanism which drove VPA to antagonize migraine. METHODS: Nitroglycerin (NTG) was employed to induce a migraine model in rats and the migraine animals were exposed to treatment of VPA of different doses. Thereafter, the levels of indicators related to oxidative stress were measured and used to evaluate the anti-oxidant potential of VPA. The expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and c-Fos was also quantified with ELISA and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Western blotting and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) were conducted to explore the effect of VPA treatment on NF-кB pathway. RESULTS: NTG induced the activation of oxidative stress and led to migraine in model animals, but pre-treatment with VPA attenuated the damage due to migraine attack in brain tissues. The level of lipid peroxidation was significantly reduced while the prodcution of anti-oxidant factors was restored. Furthermore, expressions of CGRP and c-Fos, which represented the neuronal activation, were also down-regulated by VPA. The results of western blotting and EMSA demonstrated that the above mentioned effect of VPA acted through the inhibition of NF-кB pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Although controversies on the effect of VPA on NF-кB pathway existed, our study revealed an alternative mechanism of VPA in protecting against migraine, which would promote the development of therapeutic strategies of migraine.

Emerging roles of Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers in epilepsy and developmental brain disorders.

Epilepsy is a common central nervous system (CNS) disease characterized by recurrent transient neurological events occurring due to abnormally excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. The CNS is affected by systemic acid-base disorders, and epileptic seizures are sensitive indicators of underlying imbalances in cellular pH regulation. Na(+)/H(+) exchangers (NHEs) are a family of membrane transporter proteins actively involved in regulating intracellular and organellar pH by extruding H(+) in exchange for Na(+) influx. Altering NHE function significantly influences neuronal excitability and plays a role in epilepsy. This review gives an overview of pH regulatory mechanisms in the brain with a special focus on the NHE family and the relationship between epilepsy and dysfunction of NHE isoforms. We first discuss how cells translocate acids and bases across the membrane and establish pH homeostasis as a result of the concerted effort of enzymes and ion transporters. We focus on the specific roles of the NHE family by detailing how the loss of NHE1 in two NHE mutant mice results in enhanced neuronal excitability in these animals. Furthermore, we highlight new findings on the link between mutations of NHE6 and NHE9 and developmental brain disorders including epilepsy, autism, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These studies demonstrate the importance of NHE proteins in maintaining H(+) homeostasis and their intricate roles in the regulation of neuronal function. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying NHE1, 6, and 9 dysfunctions in epilepsy formation may advance the development of new epilepsy treatment strategies.

MicroRNA-365 inhibits growth, invasion and metastasis of malignant melanoma by targeting NRP1 expression.

OBJECTIVE: The role of miR-365 in cancer cells seemed controversial in previous studies. We thereby in this article aimed to define the role of miR-365 in malignant melanoma (MM) pathogenesis. METHODS: We detected miR-365 expression in malignant melanoma cell lines and then investigated the effects of miR-365 on the metastasis and malignancy of melanoma cells. The correlation between miR-365 level and NRP1 (neuropilin1) was further investigated in clinical malignant melanoma specimens. RESULTS: MiR-365 was strongly down-regulated in malignant melanoma (MM) tissues and cell lines, and its expression levels were associated with lymph node metastasis and clinical stage, as well as overall survival and replase-free survival of MM. We also found that ectopic expression of miR-365 inhibited MM cell proliferation and MM metastasis in vitro and in vivo. We further identified a novel mechanism of miR-365 to suppress MM growth and metastasis. NRP1 was proved to be a direct target of miR-365, using luciferase assay and western blot. NRP1 over-expression in miR-365 expressing cells could rescue invasion and growth defects of miR-365. In addition, miR-365 expression inversely correlated with NRP1 protein levels in MM. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that miR-365 functions as a tumor suppressor in MM development and progression, and holds promise as a prognostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target for MM.

MicroRNA-365 inhibits growth, invasion and metastasis of malignant melanoma by targeting NRP1 expression.

OBJECTIVE: The role of miR-365 in cancer cells seemed controversial in previous studies. We thereby in this article aimed to define the role of miR-365 in malignant melanoma (MM) pathogenesis. METHODS: We detected miR-365 expression in malignant melanoma cell lines and then investigated the effects of miR-365 on the metastasis and malignancy of melanoma cells. The correlation between miR-365 level and NRP1 (neuropilin1) was further investigated in clinical malignant melanoma specimens. RESULTS: MiR-365 was strongly down-regulated in malignant melanoma (MM) tissues and cell lines, and its expression levels were associated with lymph node metastasis and clinical stage, as well as overall survival and replase-free survival of MM. We also found that ectopic expression of miR-365 inhibited MM cell proliferation and MM metastasis in vitro and in vivo. We further identified a novel mechanism of miR-365 to suppress MM growth and metastasis. NRP1 was proved to be a direct target of miR-365, using luciferase assay and western blot. NRP1 over-expression in miR-365 expressing cells could rescue invasion and growth defects of miR-365. In addition, miR-365 expression inversely correlated with NRP1 protein levels in MM. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that miR-365 functions as a tumor suppressor in MM development and progression, and holds promise as a prognostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target for MM.

Compounds with Antifouling Activities from the Roots of Notopterygium franchetii.

In antifouling screening, the extract of Notopterygium franchetii de Boiss showed obvious activity. Two new phenylpropanoids (1-2) and five known coumarins (3-7) were isolated from the methanol extract of the roots of this species. The structures of the isolated compounds were determined on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. Compounds 1-2 showed definite antifouling activity against larval settlement of Bugula neritina.